≥99.0

In addition to the toxic effects of TiO₂ NPs, discussed in previous chapters, these NPs have been also shown to promote photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism, resulting in the enhanced growth of spinach. It increases the absorption of light and accelerates the transfer and transformation of the light energy. It was also found that treatment with nano-sized TiO₂ significantly increased the level of antioxidant enzymes, and decreased the ROS accumulation and malonyldialdehyde content in spinach chloroplasts under visible and UV irradiation. TiO₂ NPs also increased the superoxide dismutase activity of germinating soybean, enhanced its antioxidant ability, and promoted seed germination and seedling growth.

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Overall, the Food Directorate's comprehensive review of the available science of TiO₂ as a food additive showed:

In a 2019 study published in the journal Nanotoxicology, researchers recreated the first phase of digestion in mice and fed them titanium dioxide, then examined whether accumulation occurred in the organs. Researchers wrote: “Significant accumulation of titanium was observed in the liver and intestine of E171-fed mice; in the latter a threefold increase in the number of TiO2 particles was also measured. Titanium accumulation in the liver was associated with necroinflammatory foci containing tissue monocytes/macrophages. Three days after the last dose, increased superoxide production and inflammation were observed in the stomach and intestine. Overall, [this] indicates that the risk for human health associated with dietary exposure to E171 needs to be carefully considered.”

This work was supported by SECyT-UNC Consolidar tipo I [2018-2021] and FONCyT, Argentina [grant number 0821-2014]. MVV holded a EVC-CIN scholarship from SECyT UNC. AM, MFPP AND MFC hold CONICET, FONCyT and SECyT scholarships respectively, and MJS, AZ, VA, MFP and MCB are career members of CONICET.

In January 2022, the average price of domestic titanium dioxide in local Chinese marketplaces was 20,735 RMB/MT. Traders were more careful in purchasing goods and downstream industries purchased things on demand. As a result, the overall market demand for titanium dioxide was general.

6. What happens next?

In order to contribute with experimental evidence that could help to achieve a better understanding of the field for future regulation, in the present work, the biocompatibility of commercial P25TiO₂NPs (one type of TiO₂NPs used in sunscreen formulations) and two novel functionalized P25TiO₂NPs were evaluated under solar simulated irradiation. White light, generated by red, blue, and yellow LEDs, together with UV ones, was chosen to simulate the solar spectra. Functionalization of TiO₂NPs was made with antioxidant vitamins in order to prevent the expected photo-initiated ROS production when nanoparticles are exposed to the simulated solar spectra. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and vitamin C were chosen to carry out the functionalization because they are water-soluble, low-cost, and are a constitutive part of biological processes. In addition, it is known that both have the potential to prevent macromolecular oxidation by ROS [23], [24], [25], [26].

The updated evaluation revises the outcome of EFSA’s previous assessment published in 2016, which highlighted the need for more research to fill data gaps.  

Introduction

From a stability standpoint, lithopone, a fusion of zinc sulfide and artificially precipitated barite, is non-toxic and exhibits resilience to mild lyes and acids. However, it is incompatible with colors containing copper. Despite its strong covering power in oil, lithopone’s drying capabilities are notably limited, posing potential issues for artists. Notably, early experimentation with lithopone-based grounds instead of zinc white resulted in undesirable darkening, although this blackness receded upon drying. This unpredictable behavior has sparked debate among scientific communities, emphasizing the need for further exploration and understanding of this pigment.